Charged Magazine

Category: Articles

  • New Year, New Me: A guide to rewiring your brain

    New Year, New Me: A guide to rewiring your brain

    Although it’s been about 4 months since the New Year, the start of summer is another perfect opportunity to get back on track with your new year’s resolutions. And this time, you’re going to stick to it because I’m going to explain the science behind your habits and how you can change your brain to change your habits. 

    Scientifically, a habit is a routine, behavior, or cognitive process that starts spontaneously but is repeated automatically as a result of prior experience (Mendelsohn, 2020). It essentially means that it’s something you do without really thinking because you’ve done it before. For example, brushing your teeth as soon as you wake up, showering before bed, or grabbing a snack as soon as you get back to your apartment even if you’re not hungry. Habits are context dependent which means they are strengthened through repetition and use cues from the surrounding environment. When you perceive a cue, it automatically triggers a response without much cognitive input (Mendelsohn, 2020). In the example above, the cue is getting back to your apartment and your habit is grabbing a snack, because you’re normally hungry when you get back. But today, you ate a bigger lunch and even though you aren’t hungry you carried out your habit, why? 

    The relationship between the cue and the response is strengthened by dopamine, the same molecule that keeps you scrolling on tiktok even though you have to wake up in 5 hours. This means that habits are strengthened and rewarded, urging you to carry them out over and over again. When you do something for the first time, your prefrontal cortex is highly active, aiding in carrying out complex cognitive behavior, attention, and decision making. As you continue to carry out the response, dopamine is released by two other brain regions known as the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and Substantia Nigra (SNc). Here, dopamine helps facilitate learning by spiking the exact neural pathway carried out if an action is worth carrying out again or repeating. This strengthens the firing of those neurons in relation to one another, a process known as neuroplasticity (more on that later). Once the response has been reinforced with dopamine, it’s tagged for repetition which is facilitated by the corticostriatal loop which connects the cortex to the striatum, the part of the brain responsible for motor control and decision making. Over time, the brain starts to correlate the cue not the action with the reward leading to the automatic nature of habits. Finally, the striatum translates dopamine release into motor encoding so the output is not reliant on cognitive input and the prefrontal cortex but associations with contextual cues (Wyatt, 2024). 

    This makes it seem like once a habit is formed, it’s an automatic response wired into us for good. Luckily, our brains are constantly evolving, rebuilding, and restructuring, a process known as synaptic plasticity. This means even though it may be hard, we can restructure, rebuild, and begin new habits. Neuroplasticity is the way the brain changes its activity in response to a stimulus by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections. This can be carried out through a mechanism known as synaptic plasticity in which long-lasting changes are made to the connections between neurons. In order for this to occur, neurons must “fire together to wire together”(Puderbaugh & Emmady, 2023). At the cellular level, this change happens through synaptic plasticity. When neurons repeatedly fire together, they strengthen their connections, a concept known as “neurons that fire together wire together.” When one neuron activates another, it releases glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter. With repeated activation, receptors like AMPA and NMDA work together to increase the sensitivity of the receiving neuron. Over time, this makes the connection stronger, meaning the same signal produces a bigger response. This is how repeated behaviors become more efficient and automatic in the brain. This is obviously really cool science, but how do you use this to form new habits? 

    It’s clear that habits require repetition whether it’s strengthening the synapses between neurons or the control of actions shifting from the prefrontal cortex to the striatum. But repetition can be hard when your brain has already been wired to do something different so here’s some tips to get your brain to repeat actions that aren’t yet habits until they become one. 

    • Write down why your new habit made you feel good 

    The reward pathway and dopamine are key players in why we carry out habits but unfortunately actions don’t feel like a reward until it’s been repeated over and over again. Taking time to think about why your new habit was a good one, and how it made you feel can release some of the “feel good” neurotransmitters and activate the same reward pathways that led to habit formation initially. 

    • Habit stacking 

    Stack new habits into a routine you already have. For example, if you always brush your teeth right when you wake up but forget to take your vitamins, start taking them right after you brush your teeth. This helps link the new behavior to already existing neural pathways making it easier to reinforce through repetition. 

    • Start small 

    Because your brain has wired your habits rendering them automatic, it takes a large cognitive load to override them. By starting small, you lessen the cognitive load and reduce the demand on the prefrontal cortex making it easier to start the task. For example, instead of saying you need to workout, start by saying you’ll go to the gym for 20 minutes. 

    • Pay attention to cues 

    Habit formation is highly cue dependent so start paying attention to the cues that trigger certain habits. The next time you see the cue, you are more likely to break the automatic control of the striatum and engage the decision making and cognitive processing of your prefrontal cortex. 

    Although habit formation may seem hard, your brain is built to be changed if you let it. Now that you know the science behind changing your brain, the summer is a great time to start! 

    Sources: 

    Exploring the brain’s relationship to habits | nsf—U. S. National science foundation. (2013, January 14). https://www.nsf.gov/news/exploring-brains-relationship-habits

    Mendelsohn, A. I. (2019). Creatures of habit: The neuroscience of habit and purposeful behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 85(11), e49–e51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.03.978

    Puderbaugh, M., & Emmady, P. D. (2026). Neuroplasticity. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557811/

    Wyatt, Zoe. (2024). The Neuroscience of Habit Formation. Neurology and Neuroscience. 5. 3. 10.33425/2692-7918.1063. 

     

  • Left? Right? Left?

    Left? Right? Left?

    https://www.procreo.jp/labo/labo13.html

    Watch this video. Do you see the dancer turning to the left?

    Keep watching. Now, do you see her turning to the right?

    The spinning dancer illusion has stumped viewers for years. Is the dancer actually changing directions, or is it just your brain playing tricks on you?

    This video was made by a Japanese web designer named Noboyuki Kayahara in 2003 (Lucafò et. al. 2016).

    Previously, I have talked about the concept of an image being multistable/bistable. Similar to images, this video can also be perceived as bistable because your brain can perceive the dancer as spinning in both the clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise (CCW) directions. Your brain maintains only one direction until prompted to switch because it settles on one interpretation until more evidence is accumulated to push it to change. In this case, my prompting you to look again would be sufficient evidence for your brain to look for a different visual interpretation of this video (Lucafò et. al., 2016).

    In a study conducted by Bernal, it was found that a different hemisphere of the brain is activated for each iteration of the video (CW and CCW). This shows that different brain states are present for the subjective perception of a visual input. These differences in perception reflected spontaneous brain fluctuations in top-down sensory processing (Bernal et. al, 2014).

    The ability of the brain to “flip” an interpretation of a visual input is a topic that has only been researched in recent years. The spinning dancer illusion is a simple and easy to measure and provides a strong basis for future studies in neural perception and attention.

    References

    Bernal, B., Guillen, M., & Marquez, J. C. (2014). The spinning dancer illusion and spontaneous brain fluctuations: An fMRI study. Neurocase, 20(6), 627-639.

    Lucafò, C., Marzoli, D., Prete, G., & Tommasi, L. (2016). Laterality effects in the spinning dancer illusion: The viewing‐from‐above bias is only part of the story. British Journal of Psychology, 107(4), 698-709.

  • Fabrican: Taking a Piece of Chemistry onto the Catwalk

    Fabrican: Taking a Piece of Chemistry onto the Catwalk

    One of the most valuable experiences for any designer or innovator is the process of mastering new fields of knowledge to better guide and inform creative decisions. Almost every new problem or project requires designers to think of new ways to approach their solution or design. Manel Torres is the perfect example of this approach as he had to immerse himself in chemistry to develop what is now known as spray-on clothing. His work demonstrates how expanding beyond traditional design boundaries can lead to groundbreaking results with multiple applications! Torres’s invention really highlights how impactive ideas often emerge when disciplines intersect.

    During Paris Fashion week in 2022 at the Coperni runway, Bella Hadid made a stunning performance as she stood there practically naked, while being sprayed with some white liquid material. Well, this material so happened to originate from the works of Manel Torres’ Fabrican. Inspired by silly string spray cans, Torres wanted to create a spray-on T-shirt from an aerosol can during his doctoral years at the Royal School of Art in London. With the help of Professor Paul Luckham from Imperial College’s department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology, Torres was able to create the right formulation to produce something that can spray thin fabric onto a model (Melton, 2023). A featured article years back on the home page of the Guardian Newspaper, highlights the work of fashion designer Dr. Manel Torres who invented a spray that “forms a seamless fabric on contact with the body” (Amato, 2011). Along with the article was a video, showing Torres in a lab coat demonstrating his new innovation by spraying the torso of a male model with a liquid mix of fibers and polymers that instantly dried and solidified upon contact with the skin. The results came out to be a skintight t-shirt!

    (source: drawn by An Truong)

    So how is it possible for a liquid material to become something that you can actually wear? 

    Torres’ invention consists of a liquid mixture of short fibers that are suspended in a solvent that evaporates when exposed in the air, so that the spray turns into a solid non-woven non-knit material upon contact (Melton, 2023). It was made to be applied using an aerosol can or a spray gun that would be sprayed directly onto a person or onto a mannequin or mold, forming a fabric layer that can be thickened and strengthened by applying multiple layers. With this, you would be able to style, peel off, and shape the fabric as needed. The fibers themselves are biopolymers created from natural or synthetic sources such as corn starch, wool or mohair based keratin, hemp, or even collagen (Amato, 2023). Torres also experimented with various other kinds of fabrics and textures such as a paper-like texture, fleece, rubber, and lace. These fabrics and textures were able to be embossed, molded, and essentially patterned in any ways a designer wishes. 

    (source: TEDxTalk)

    Further Application

    Torres believes that his invention should be and can be used to create a wide range of products, including fashion, automotive components such as dashboards and interior fabrics, and for medical application such as bandages, instant sterile dressings, or drug delivery patches. 

    As any great designer and innovator would do, Manel Torres continues developing and improving his own works. In a TED TALK Torres gave in 2012, he mentions how he wants to push Fabrican to be fully reusable and sustainable as well as incorporate some kind of smart technology in the future. This is a great practice for designers and innovators alike as they should all reflect on their designs and continue to improve them even after its final outcome is presented.

    Conclusion

    Manel Torres’s work with Fabrican shows how innovation in design is truly never finished. It should evolve alongside new ideas, technologies, and needs. By continuing to refine his spray-on fabric with goals of sustainability, material and cost efficiency, and integration of smart technology, Torres sets a perfect example for future designers and innovators that creativity should not end at just the final invention or outcome, it instead continues to grow through constant iteration. Manel Torres’ process demonstrates how science and design can merge to create materials that are functional and adaptable. As Fabrican develops, it has great potential to reshape industries starting from fashion and expanding to fields such as medicine. Ultimately, Torres’s process and work encourages designers to think beyond traditional materials and to embrace experimentation and iteration. His brilliant vision for the future of clothing and textiles challenges the next generation to design with both imagination, experimentation, and research!

    Citations:

    Amato, Sarah. (2011). Fit to a T: Spray-On Clothing, Craft, Commodity Fetishism, and the Agency of Objects. Utopian Studies, 22(2), 285–302. https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.22.2.0285

    Coperni. (2023, September 14). The making of a dress [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxObP6-ovdk

    Melton, Lisa. The instant spray-on dress. Nat Biotechnol 41, 743 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-023-01829-1

    TEDx Talks. (2012, April 26). Spray-On Fabric: Manel Torres at TEDxImperialCollege [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EW6Gv-IoErw

     

  • Health and Houseplants

    Health and Houseplants

    Recently I have been completely obsessed with houseplants. For a whole month, I bought a new plant every week. I bought them fertilizer, new pots, anything I could to keep them healthy and growing. When I fill up my water bottle, I know my plants will be drinking more of it than me. But why? Was this craze fueled by a desire for a better oxygenated indoor life? Or to somehow resolve the everyday stress of student life? Turns out, it was probably a combination of both.

    Houseplants and The Physical Environment

    You may already know that humans inhale O2  and exhale CO2 . You may also know that plants intake CO2 and output O2. This makes humans and plants the perfect pair! It turns out that too much CO2 is harmful for us too! Short term, too high a concentration of CO2 can cause sore throat, coughing, shortness of breath, and dry eyes. Long term, it has even been linked to obesity (Gubb, 2018). Another issue our indoor environments present for us is lower than optimal humidity, which plants can also work to solve! (Gubb, 2018) Low humidity can cause skin and eye irritation, dry sinuses, and increased flu transmission (Gubb, 2018). While it’s hard to say exactly how much plants offset these effects due to the negative impact on plant gas exchange rates from being indoors, we do know that plants help combat these issues. 

    Houseplants and Psychology

    Believe it or not, houseplants can help support your mental health too! According to one study, people in offices with plants were more attentive to tasks (Yeo, 2020). Another study showed that plants promote creativity, reduce stress levels, and create positive feelings and comfort (Yeo, 2020). These are huge benefits for something as cheap and low maintenance as a house plant.

    My Experience With Plants

    When it really comes down to it, these are definitely not the real reasons for my houseplant craze, but they are real effects of it. Just having them around (and giving them names), has given me something else to care for in my day to day life, much like a pet. This is something I think a lot of college students, and many others, are missing from their lives. For me personally, my window faces the sunrise. Having plants who are reliant on that sun in the morning has helped me get out of bed to open my blinds for them. They also give me something to focus on: I’ve gotten into the habit of checking on each one before bed every night to see if I notice anything. For them, it’s to make sure I catch things like yellowing leaves that could indicate a need for something early. But for me, it’s become a sort of ritual, or part of my routine before bed. I feel like this has helped me get to sleep faster. For anyone reading this, I would encourage you to try it out yourself. Maybe start with one little plant, something easy like a succulent, and develop your own rituals around it. See how it helps you!

    References

    Gubb, C., Blanusa, T., Griffiths, A., & Pfrang, C. (2018). Can houseplants improve indoor air quality by removing CO2 and increasing relative humidity? Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 11(10), 1191–1201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-018-0618-9

    Yeo, L. B. (2020). Psychological And Physiological Benefits Of Plants In The Indoor Environment: A Mini And In-Depth Review. International Journal of Built Environment and Sustainability, 8(1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.11113/ijbes.v8.n1.597

  • Organoids Part Two: Despite Limitations, They’re Still Amazing

    Organoids Part Two: Despite Limitations, They’re Still Amazing

    Clearly one article wasn’t enough to explore the full potential of organoids, so here we go again. This article won’t make much sense without reading the first but a quick catch up:
    Organoids are 3D cell structures grown from Stem cell samples and grown in nutrient rich gel.

    • They can better model human systems as they are more complex than their 2D counterparts and a better representation of human systems than animal models.
    • This advantage makes organoids uniquely beneficial to the field of drug research and testing and personalized medicine.
    • Link to original article if desired: https://2026fat.chargedmag.org/2026/04/organoids-what-are-they-and-why-theyre-amazing/

    Limitations
    These applications are not without limitations however. While organoids can replicate many aspects of human tissue, some specific cell genes are harder to find in organoids (Andrews and Kriegstein, 2022). This impaired the organoids’ ability to properly simulate the systems they are derived from, preventing researchers from properly modeling diseases and treatments in that area.

    Additionally, while developments have been made to improve organoid lifespans, organoids still require controlled environments and regular care to survive (Simian and Bissell, 2016). Even the longest lasting organoids, neurological models, have only survived a couple of years. Many organoids will even grow patches of dead tissue in the center due to a lack of oxygen hindering their research capabilities (Andrews & Kriegstein, 2022). In organic systems, cells are constantly interchanging molecules to maintain their functions and prevent necrosis. The nutritional gel can only do so much to get the molecules to cells at the interior of organoid structure without the natural systems to supply it.

    All of this causes organoid maintenance to be costly compared to in-vitro models, which are relatively cheap and easy to handle (Schutgens & Clevers, 2020). This stifles research leading to many knowledge gaps in the field. Furthermore, these restrictions limit modeling larger systems. Potential treatments tested in smaller organoids could have unpredictable impacts on a larger system when prescribed. Concerns around this limits applications of organoids, creating Theory-Application Voids.

    There are also many population gaps in organoid research as certain demographics are underrepresented in the stem cells used to create the organoids. These stem cells are often pulled from stem cell donor registries which have significant demographic, systemic, and behavioral biases. Further development into organoids and increased diversity in biobanks can increase organoid capabilities and applications.

    Concerns
    There are also current concerns surrounding organoid research that need to be addressed. While organoid models no longer rely on stem cells taken from embryos, they are still used in organoids modeling traditional embryo frameworks. These models use STEM cells to study the process of early embryonic development and can be very useful in identifying gestation concerns or potential risks to a fetus (Pereira et al., 2020). Once again, the line of when a zygote becomes a person however, gets blurry. Multiple public figures and many private citizens are debating if the creation of an embryo, even as a limited organoid, for study is ethical.

    There are also concerns about neurological organoid models used for neurological diseases (Lavazza and Massimini, 2018). Current models can only imitate parts of the human brain. However, as models more closely resemble a human brain with increased functionality, ethical questions surrounding the creation and experimentation of something than can think and feel will only grow. The line being living, sentient, and sapient is hard to discern, especially with limited structures that might not have the ability to communicate mental facilities.

    Future implementations of organoid models also raise ethical concerns regarding their financial exploitation and patient consent. People’s cell matter must be collected and added to databases to be used in organoid research (Bredenoord et al., 2017). Active patient involvement in organoid development is essential when considering this process. Their participation in cell donation must remain voluntary and properly compensated, and this is currently not guaranteed.

    The implementation of organoids in personalized medicine could also have complications on the healthcare system (Stefanicka-Wojtas & Kurpas, 2023). While organoids could improve personalized medicine, the increased specificity of treatments could lead to decreased procedure lifespans and certainty. The underrepresentation and price of organoid backed research could also exacerbate existing disparities in healthcare and lead to an increase in general healthcare costs or dropped plans due to cost-shifting (What’s Behind Rising Health Insurance Costs? | Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 2025).

    Scientists in organoid research have repeatedly advocated for remaining cautious and careful in this relatively unexplored ethical field.

    Potential Applications
    Despite all of that dour news, organoids are still having a positive impact on millions of people with the potential to aid millions more. Unfortunately we only have time for two of these here: Regenerative Medicine and Transplantation.

    Regenerative Medicine is the field of science dedicated to the regeneration and restoration of human tissue based in Stem cells. Many different animals have regenerative properties from the regrowth and axolotl limbs to sea cucumbers regrowing internal organs to flatworms regrowing entire heads. Throughout history scientists have been inspired by these properties and researched the mechanisms behind them, leading to the field of regenerative medicine. While the study of artificial organs has been around since the 1930s, the modern idea of regenerative medicine centered around Stem cells started in the 1990s (Sampogna et al., 2015).

    As mentioned in my first article, the very purpose of Stem cells is to replace damaged, specialized cells. By comprehending the properties behind their functions, scientists can apply them to other areas. It is organoids that allow scientists to grow the cell cultures and tissue samples that are behind regenerative research. If someone has a large wound or damaged organ, an organoid of that structure could be applied and integrated into the person’s natural system. The organoid could be made from the person’s own cells, bypassing an immune response that comes with many non-biomaterials or transplants. This has already been proven promising. In one study, organoids made from the stem cells of mice suffering from inflammation and damage of their colon lining were successfully transferred onto the mice’s injured tissue. The cultured tissue covered the damage leading to a decrease in inflammation and harmful symptoms (Babak Arjmand et al., 2022). There are currently limitations, such as the delivery of nutrients mentioned above that directly challenge this field, but with more research scientists can find better ways for organoids to improve people’s lives through regenerative medicine.

    Transplantation is a great example of the applications of regenerative medicine. As mentioned above, tissues and cell cultures can be grown using organoids. This is not the extent of their potential however. As organoid research develops, scientists are working to make larger and more complex models. Through assembloids, the combinations of different types of organoid (a topic for a later article), lab made organs or entire organ systems could be created from a single stem cell. In 2025, scientists were able to successfully transplant pig kidneys made from organoids (SMC Spain, 2025). In the future organoids could be used to transplant an entire human heart or cardiovascular system. An even farther yet still plausible possibility would be the creation of entire limbs for transplants with scientists already researching limb organoids (Tsutsumi & Mototsugu Eiraku, 2023). Approximately 5,600 people in the U.S. die each year simply waiting for a transplant in addition to the 30% of recipients who die within 10 years of a transplant due to complications such as transplant rejection (What Are the Complications of Transplantation?, 2019). Organoids have the potential to prevent these deaths, and while there are still complications due to the price and longevity of organoids, they will only improve with continued exploration.

    Conclusion
    Organoids are amazing. They have the ability to impact almost every field of biomedical science and save millions of lives. While this article does take a much more nuanced look at organoids, diving into their limitations and complications, scientists are aware of these issues and taking careful approaches to research. Improvements in organoids, especially to their limitations, can only be made if research is supported and continued. There is still so much potential for organoids that we have only just scratched the surface of and so many more applications that we haven’t even considered yet. Organoids have even been proven to work with many other biomedical instruments and tools, aiding in their development as well. The possibilities are endless.

    Organoids are my passion, I’ve been interested in them for years now. Yet no one knew what I was going on and on about. I hope that these articles inspire curiosity and spread the wonders of organoids to others.

    ————————————————————————————————

    Works Cited:

    Title Image: Illustration created by Alexandra Marshall

    Andrews, M. G., & Kriegstein, A. R. (2022). Challenges of Organoid Research. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 45(1), 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-111020-090812

    Babak Arjmand, Rabbani, Z., Faezeh Soveyzi, Akram Tayanloo-Beik, Mostafa Rezaei-Tavirani, Mahmood Biglar, Adibi, H., & Bagher Larijani. (2022). Advancement of Organoid Technology in Regenerative Medicine. Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine, 9(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-022-00271-0

    Bredenoord, A. L., Clevers, H., & Knoblich, J. A. (2017). Human tissues in a dish: The research and ethical implications of organoid technology. Science, 355(6322). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf9414

    Lavazza, A., & Massimini, M. (2018). Cerebral organoids: ethical issues and consciousness assessment. Journal of Medical Ethics, 44(9), 606–610. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2017-104555

    Pereira, A. M., Popovic, M., Dondorp, W. J., Bustos, M. T., Bredenoord, A. L., Chuva, S. M., Susanne, Roelen, B. A. J., Guido, & Björn Heindryckx. (2020). Modelling human embryogenesis: embryo-like structures spark ethical and policy debate. Human Reproduction Update, 26(6), 779–798. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmaa027

    Sampogna, G., Guraya, S. Y., & Forgione, A. (2015). Regenerative medicine: Historical roots and potential strategies in modern medicine. Journal of Microscopy and Ultrastructure, 3(3), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmau.2015.05.002

    Spain, S. (2025, October 31). For the first time, pig kidneys modified with human renal organoids are transplanted into pigs. SMC España. https://sciencemediacentre.es/en/first-time-pig-kidneys-modified-human-renal-organoids-are-transplanted-pigs#:~:text=Pig%20kidneys%20modified%20with%20human%20renal%20organoids

    Schutgens, F., & Clevers, H. (2020). Human Organoids: Tools for Understanding Biology and Treating Diseases. Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease, 15(1), 211–234. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012419-032611

    Simian, M., & Bissell, M. J. (2016). Organoids: A historical perspective of thinking in three dimensions. The Journal of Cell Biology, 216(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201610056

    Stefanicka-Wojtas, D., & Kurpas, D. (2023). Personalised Medicine—Implementation to the Healthcare System in Europe (Focus Group Discussions). Journal of Personalized Medicine, 13(3), 380. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm13030380

    Tsutsumi, R., & Mototsugu Eiraku. (2023). How might we build limbs in vitro informed by the modular aspects and tissue-dependency in limb development? Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 11, 1135784–1135784. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2023.1135784

    What are the complications of transplantation? (2019, April). National Kidney Federation. https://www.kidney.org.uk/what-are-the-complications-of-transplantation#:~:text=Within%20one%20year%20of%20any,ten%20years%20after%20a%20transplant.

     

  • All Work and No Play

    All Work and No Play

    The cover image was sourced from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.09.020.

    If you’ve ever fallen down the easily addictive, low-stress rabbit hole that is the world of wonderfully awesome animal videos, you might have come across this video of a crow in Russia, sliding down a snow-covered roof while perching on a jar lid.

    While it’s easy to think that this crow went sledding purely for their own enjoyment, scientists aren’t content with that conclusion – thinking in such an anthropomorphic way projects our own human thoughts and feelings onto animals who, while exhibiting familiar behaviors, may not be doing it for the same reasons we do (Emery & Clayton, 2015).

    But, regardless of what we may think, birds do play! What does that look like? Well, most forms of play are divided into one of several categories: the first broad category being locomotor play, which includes all kinds of flight-related play – hanging from surfaces, flying upside down (Emery & Clayton, 2015), and even sledding down a snowy roof in Russia!

    Social play involves interactions between birds – there’s play chasing, where one bird follows another, whether on the ground or through the air. We also have play fighting, where two birds engage in actions adopted from antagonistic behaviors. There’s also play invitation, where two birds engage in actions that occur primarily before play. Finally, we have social object play, where two birds engage with one or more objects in their environment (Bond & Diamond, 2003).

    While we briefly touched on it, object play itself can be considered another major category of play – involving exploration, curiosity, object manipulation, where birds learn about the structure of objects, if they’re edible or not, and how they might work (Emery & Clayton, 2015).

    Figure 2 Source: https://corvidresearch.blog/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/northwestern-crow-youngsters-playing-tug-of-war_595.jpg

    The problem with researching play is that birds don’t necessarily need a reason to play – even when considering the anthropomorphic projection we cast onto them from our human perspectives, it can be as simple as having fun!

    “Fun”, at least, in the context of the brain, involves taking part in something rewarding that provides a sense of pleasure. You may have heard of the neurotransmitter dopamine… it plays an important role in the reward-seeking system, controlling the search for reward-inducing stimuli for almost all creatures (Emery & Clayton, 2015).

    When people come across phenomena like this in the wild, the answer that tends to come to mind often lies on the justifying end of the spectrum; in our attempt to be objective, we may implicitly assign a “value” to that act of play. Perhaps birds play fight to practice hunting, perhaps birds engage in social play to form strong, interconnected networks, and perhaps that crow slid down that roof to learn how to use that lid!

    Studies done on the potential concrete benefits of play – such as relative brain size, for instance – ultimately find that there is little to no predictive value between the complexity of play with those benefits. As such, it is hard to say whether or not the act of play is utilitarian in nature (Bond & Diamond, 2003).

    Does that mean that play is inherently fun? Once again, it’s hard to say! Humans, after all, may be the only species that have the luxury of leisure time. The time we spend solely pursuing pleasure: games, hobbies, activities we may find fun, are all a product of modern developments. We no longer have to hunt or grow our own food, we no longer have to worry about predators, we no longer have to worry about forming civilized societies – but birds, and by extension, all other animals, do (Emery & Clayton, 2015)!

    Perhaps that is the underlying reason why we believe play has to have a purpose. Wild animals have a limited time to find food, find water, avoid predators, find a mate, raise offspring, all in the name of the cycle of life. Why, then, would a bird waste its time playing for the sake of playing? Why, then, do we have examples of crows sledding through the snow?

    All of these questions are interesting to ponder, and I personally don’t have all the answers. The realm of neuroscience is far out of my understanding, but I hope I’ve done a good job setting the stage for this interesting question.

    I’ll leave things here with a plan of action to you, the reader – whenever you see a cute animal video in the future, think to yourself: why could this be happening? Is it play, or is it intentional? Most importantly, though… why is it so gosh darn adorable?!

    Reference List

    Bond, A., & Diamond, J. (2003). A Comparative Analysis of Social Play in Birds. Behaviour, 140(8-9), 1091–1115. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853903322589650

    Emery, N., & Clayton, N. (2015). Do birds have the capacity for fun? Current Biology, 25(1), R16–R20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.09.020

  • Digging for Dungs: the Dinosaur Digest

    Digging for Dungs: the Dinosaur Digest

    Every parent that’s watched their children play with dinosaurs have all had the same thought at one time or another: thank God dinosaurs are extinct. While the idea of dinosaurs seems mythical to some, paleontologists have determined their existence through fossils since the 1820’s. As technology advances, and paleontologists uncover more dinosaur fossils, the science world is realizing how crucial dinosaurs were to their ecological environment. To better understand what dinosaurs ate, paleontologists are transitioning from observing tooth structures to something most individuals may find repulsive or uncanny: fossilized feces, otherwise known as coprolites.

    More specifically, paleontologists are currently studying a 26.5 inch coprolite- the largest recorded fossilized dung- of a Tyrannosaurus rex (T.Rex) to uncover what kind of organisms they preyed upon. The reason paleontologists are so keen on examining coprolites compared to other fossils is because dung structures provide an in-depth look into their diet. Karen Chin, a paleo-ecologist and professor at the University of Colorado describes the coprolite search to be fascinating, “…they’re basically like receipts of transactions of carbon resources that are traveling through an ecosystem” (Scott et.al, 2023). Dr. Chin’s analogy breaks down the concept of coprolites and gently nudges at the importance of the molecular structure within coprolites, which allows researchers like Dr. Chin to identify likely organisms part of the food web. 

    Firstly, what does a coprolite consist of? In terms of their chemical composition, coprolites are mainly composed of calcium phosphate, a compound that allows the structure to be preserved (as they have been for millions of years). Externally, coprolites do not have a universal look- some are coiled or cylindrical while others have defined features that create an unwieldy look. Color wise, coprolites look…well one doesn’t need a description for that. As paleontologists continue studying the internal components of coprolites, a major breakthrough emerges. While analyzing coprolites of carnivorous dinosaurs, like the T.Rex and Spinosaurous, they discover intact bone fragments. This suggests that carnivorous dinosaurs ingested bones and that their digestive systems adapted to this lifestyle, as seen in the coprolites. Furthermore, coprolites are aiding scientific advancements in understanding the types of living organisms that lived during the Triassic to Cretaceous periods. Bone remnants have the potential to revolutionize how we comprehend dinosaur digestion in relation to their ecosystem.

    The future implications of dinosaur coprolites are unimaginable; paired with the technology scientists develop for paleontologists to utilize, novel discoveries are on the up and coming. One of the many technological devices paleontologists are focusing on is the synchrotron microtomography, an X-ray machine that analyzes biological specimens (Sena et.al, 2022). These images provide paleontologists with a micro-analysis of the coprolites and make the process of tracking dietary habits easier. Not only can paleontologists identify the type of prey (animal or plant) but are able to answer the biggest question regarding dinosaurs: how did these creatures become the top predator of their food chain? 

    The search for possible solutions led paleontologists to discover herbivores and their reign among the food chain. They’ve discovered that dinosaurs who acquired plant-based diets were surviving, reproducing, and growing in size. Essentially, as carnivorous dinosaurs converted to herbivores and made their palate diverse, by the Triassic period, they could adapt to any type of environment. Coprolites played a major role in revealing this fact by displaying trace fossils of the animals herbivores hunted. (Pattison 2024). Herbivore coprolites are proving to be indispensable in the paleontologist world- who knows what other mysteries could be solved as more coprolites emerge. For years paleontologists have observed fossilized dinosaur teeth and even vomit as the primary methods of identifying dietary patterns. Now, they utilize dinosaur coprolites, or dung, with the help of innovative technology that is paving the way for thorough research like never before.

    References

    Scott, A., McCoy, B., & Ramirez, R. (2023, November 24). What fossilized poop can teach us about dinosaurs. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2023/11/24/1198908684/dinosaurs-fossilized-poop-utah-dung-beetles-jurassic-park 

    Brumfiel, G. (2024, November 27). Over 500 fossilized poops show how dinosaurs came to rule the Earth. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2024/11/26/nx-s1-5206634/fossilized-poops-show-how-dinosaurs-came-rule-earth#:~:text=A%20few%20years%20ago%2C%20he,were%20eating%20lots%20of%20stuff 

    Sena G, Fidalgo G, Paiva K, Barcelos R, Nogueira LP, Colaço MV, Gonzalez MS, Azambuja P, Colaço G, da Silva HR, de Moura Meneses AA, Barroso RC. Synchrotron X-ray biosample imaging: opportunities and challenges. Biophys Rev. 2022 Jun 2;14(3):625-633. doi: 10.1007/s12551-022-00964-4. PMID: 35791381; PMCID: PMC9250583.

    Pattison, K. (2024, November). Dino droppings reveal how the Giant Beasts came to dominate Earth | science | AAAS. Science. https://www.science.org/content/article/dino-droppings-reveal-how-giant-beasts-came-dominate-earth