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Psychedelics

January 17, 2020

Introduction:

Microdosing is the use of micro amounts of psychedelic substances on a consistent basis (Anderson). Psychedelics, such as LSD and psilocybin (street names acid and shrooms), are “powerful psychoactive substances that alter perception and mood and affect numerous cognitive processes” (Nichols 266). Recent studies have shown that full-doses of these substances used for psychotherapy decreased depression and anxiety in cancer patients (Johnstad). The theory behind microdosing is that small amounts of psychedelics can help increase creativity and problem-solving abilities (Johnstad).

Psychedelics have been used for centuries sometimes as part of cultural rituals. After the discovery of serotonin in the brain, researchers believed that the effects of psychedelics were linked to serotonin. After studies were completed on rats, it turns out they were somewhat correct. Researchers, now, believe that psychedelics are agonists or partial agonists meaning they combine with receptors in the brain to achieve the psychological effects (Kenakin; Nichols). The brain receptor that’s affected is serotonin 5-hydroxtryptamine 2A (Nichols).

Studies:

Due to legal restrictions, psychedelic studies are limited. There are several self-reported studies from the US where people voluntarily reported how they feel when they microdose, and there was a singular study published in 2018 from the Netherlands that explored microdosing in a scientific setting.

In one of the self-reported studies, Microdosing psychedelics: personality, mental health, and creativity differences in microdosers, microdosers showed significantly lower scores on “dysfunctional attitudes. . .  and negative emotionality” meaning they reacted more positively to life experiences (Anderson, et al. 731). Microdosers also had significantly higher wisdom, open-mindedness, and creativity scores which agrees with the theories stating that microdosing makes people more creative and better at problem solving (Anderson, et al.).

Another self-reported study, Powerful substances in tiny amounts: An interview study of psychedelic microdosing, looked extensively at 21 microdosers. These microdosers reported “improved mood, cognition, and creativity” (Johnstad), but some reported that they quit the practice due to cons outweighing the pros. Some people had issues with preforming tasks like driving or work, and others had issues like accidental overdosing (meaning that they experienced hallucinations and other aspects caused by a full dose of a psychedelic). Mushrooms, in particular, have varying amounts of psilocybin, so it’s hard to ingest an accurate amount when microdosing (Johnstad).

The study titled Exploring the effect of microdosing psychedelics on creativity in an open-label natural setting is the only study that tries to quantify the effects of microdosing on cognitive abilities. Before microdosing, participants completed three different tasks meant to test their convergent, divergent, and fluid thinking. The participants then consumed a small amount of psychedelics and performed the tasks again. The researchers concluded that convergent and divergent thinking where enhanced by the psychedelics while fluid intelligence remained the same. This was an extremely preliminary study with no placebo group, but the results suggest a need for further testing in this subject matter (Prochazkova).

Conclusion:

Although research has been done into microdosing, it’s hard to make a finite conclusion about its quantitative effects. There are possible pros to microdosing, but there are also negatives including accidental tripping and cost.

 

Sources:

Anderson, Thomas, et al. “Microdosing Psychedelics: Personality, Mental Health, and Creativity Differences in Microdosers.” Psychopharmechology, vol. 236, no. 2, 2019, pp. 731–740., doi:10.31234/osf.io/gk4jd.

Johnstad, Petter G. “Powerful Substances in Tiny Amounts.” Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, vol. 35, no. 1, 15 Feb. 2018, pp. 39–51., doi:10.1177/1455072517753339.

Kenakin, Terry P. “Agonist.” Agonist – an Overview, Science Direct, 2009, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/agonist.

Nichols, David E. “Psychedelics.” Pharmacological Reviews, vol. 68, no. 2, Apr. 2016, pp. 264–355., doi:10.1515/9781400878697-012.

Prochazkova, Luisa, et al. “Exploring the Effect of Microdosing Psychedelics on Creativity in an Open-Label Natural Setting.” Psychopharmacology, vol. 235, no. 12, 2018, pp. 3401–3413., doi:10.1007/s00213-018-5049-7.

 

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  Timothy Durham was convicted of rape when a test showed his DNA genotype matched the DNA recovered from the crime scene. Eye witnesses testified that Durham was in a different state at the time of the incident, but he wasn’t exonerated from his 3000 year sentence until follow up DNA analysis showed that the preliminary forensic analysis used in the trial was misinterpreted (Thomas et al.). DNA testing serves an invaluable part in our criminal justice system, but it comes with complications and bias that can lead to wrongful convictions and misinformed juries.  

Background:

Forensic genetics aims to identify the origin of a biological sample. It can be traced back to Karl Landsteiner who discovered human ABO blood groups. With blood groups, suspects could be eliminated based on their blood type. For example, if a suspect had type A blood and there was type B blood left at the scene by the perpetrator, the investigators could rule out the suspect. Unfortunately, the reverse didn’t work. If the suspect and perpetrator both had the same blood type, it can’t be concluded that the suspect was guilty. Blood identifiers evolved into 8 distinct categories which improved the ability to eliminate suspects, but could only conclude that (if the system matched) it might be the perpetrator or this person might be related to the perpetrator (Jobling and Gill). The field evolved in the 1980s with the discovery of Minisatellites, lines of repetitive DNA that don’t encode proteins. Minisatellite patterns in DNA create what we know today as the DNA fingerprint, and it has a much higher accuracy rate than previous methods (Augustyn et al.). Around the same time, a breakthrough for victims of sexual assault was discovered. In the case of assault, bodily fluids of both the victim and the assaulter can get mixed. A process called differential lysis was created which could selectively increase the concentration of sperm in a fluid sample thereby allowing for accurate DNA testing (Jobling and Gill). Forensics evolved to use single-locus probe testing after several years because of its ease of interpretation. It looked at specific minisatellites that had high variability between subjects. This was the first DNA-based method to be used in a criminal investigation. Two murder homicides from several years apart were connected using DNA evidence. The evidence was then used to exonerate an innocent man, and the guilty party was found when he tried to evade mandatory DNA testing for all men in the small town. His guilt was then reinforced when the DNA profiles matched, and he gave a confession (Jobling and Gill). Finding DNA at a crime scene doesn’t guarantee that you’ll find a murderer. There are issues with non-pure samples and limited samples that make DNA work difficult, and accreditation of facilities and new techniques and take time (Jobling and Gill).  

Subjectivity of DNA Interpretation:

In a 2009 publication, the National Academy of Science discusses the possibility for subjective influence in lab based forensics. The interpretation bias happens in complex cases where, for example, there could be a mixture of DNA. A study published in 2011 looked specifically at this issue. A gang rape happened in Georgia, and the mixture in DNA from the case was used to prosecute one suspect after another suspect took a plea bargain to testify against him. With DNA mixtures, there are three possible conclusions: suspect excluded, suspect cannot be excluded, and inconclusive. If the suspect is excluded, it means that there’s little to no possibility that his DNA is part of the sample. If the suspect cannot be excluded, it means that there’s a possibility that his DNA is part of the sample. In the trial, the DNA examiners who knew the context of the case concluded that the suspect being prosecuted could not be excluded. The 2011 study gave the DNA evidence from this case and the DNA profiles of the suspects to 17 forensic examiners. These examiners had no context of the case, and they all worked independently. Of the 17, only 1 came to the same conclusion (suspect cannot be excluded) as the examiners who knew the context of the case. Twelve of the 17 concluded that the suspect who was prosecuted and convicted had no relation to the DNA found in the sample. Not only does this show that subjectivity occurs due to the context of the case, but the 17 examiners came up with different findings based on their past experiences meaning that not all DNA analysis is objective. Some organizations like the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods say that quantitative statistical evidence should be presented with every categorical conclusion, but the US doesn’t require this (Dror and Hampikian).

False Positives:

There are two categories that cause wrongful identification in a DNA report: coincidental matches and false positives. Coincidental matches are DNA matches between two unrelated people. The probability of these matches is about 1 to 500,000 for white individuals and about 1 to 350,000 for black individuals. This small probability of coincidental matches makes people feel confident in DNA evidence. False positives, on the other hand, are matches between DNA and test DNA that result from issues in the forensics lab. There have been multiple cases of forensics labs accidentally switching victim and suspected rapist DNA which lead to convictions that were later overturned when the lab realized the error. There are also cases of misreading or misunderstanding a sample. In a case from 1993, a man was convicted of rape because someone interpreted a mixed sample of victim and perpetrator DNA as an individual sample. The conviction was again overturned. To prevent false convictions, retesting DNA is allowed, but it’s not an efficient solution. Many people are pushing for statistical information on the probability of false positives, so that the jurors can make accurate judgements based on DNA evidence (Thomas et al.).  

Conclusion:

DNA analysis is a useful tool for the criminal justice system, but subjectivity can be an issue in forensic testing. To combat wrongful convictions, there are organizations like The Innocence Project who use DNA testing to free the innocent, but reformed forensic testing standards should be put in place to prevent subjectivity and to ensure juries are correctly informed during trials. https://www.innocenceproject.org/    

Citation:

Augustyn , Adam, et al. “DNA Finerprinting.” Encyclopedia Britannica , 26 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/DNA-fingerprinting#ref153186. Dror, Itiel E., and Greg Hampikian. “Subjectivity and Bias in Forensic DNA Mixture Interpretation.” Science & Justice, vol. 51, no. 4, 2011, pp. 204–208., doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2011.08.004. Jobling, Mark A., and Peter Gill. “Encoded Evidence: DNA in Forensic Analysis.” Nature Reviews: Genetics, vol. 5, no. 10, Oct. 2004, pp. 739–751., doi:10.1038/nrg1455. Thompson, William C, et al. “How the Probability of a False Positive Affects the Value of DNA Evidence.” Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 48, no. 1, Jan. 2003, pp. 1–8., doi:10.1520/jfs2001171.