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A Picture Can be Worth a Thousand Words…or Dollars

March 8, 2022

Whether you dabble in it or appreciate it, we come across art in any shape or form several times in our daily lives– especially the visual kind. For most, we came into contact with making art in some art class in elementary school, using nontoxic watercolors and, if they let us, acrylic. These paints, obviously, are very different from those that professionals use in their lives, but in what ways? Why don’t professional artists use Crayola watercolors for their work? The answer may lie in the science and chemical composition of the paint itself. 

 

For starters, paints contain binders, solvents, and pigments. The pigment is the actual color part that we see, and the more light that’s absorbed by it, the deeper the color. Binders are what help the pigment stick to the surface of a painting and can vary depending on whether the pigment is organic or inorganic, but most paints use a gum arabic binder. 

handprint.com

 

Typically, organic pigments are more preferred due to their more vibrant colors and their increased stability. These paints will use a turpentine binder. Inorganic pigments, however, are more affordable and are heat and light stable. These pigments are made of metal oxides, usually transition metals that can sometimes be toxic, so these aren’t commonly used. These elements usually have their bonding electrons in d-orbitals, and when bonded, can lead to these orbitals splitting into 2 levels of energy which allow electrons to absorb energy and move between the two levels, but the wavelength they absorb can be different depending on how large the gap between the 2 energy levels are. The light that is not absorbed and reflected is what we perceive. 

Gamma represents the wavelength that’s absorbed (ResearchGate)

 

Staying with pigments, the more pigment, the more it will cost. Typically, artist-grade paint will have a higher concentration of finely-ground pigment, increasing surface area of the pigment and its vibrancy. Another factor that will raise the cost is if the pigment is organic or inorganic. Organic pigments, which can be more expensive since they are naturally-found colors and can be rare, are more vibrant and retain color over time when exposed to light. 

 

A more expensive, higher quality watercolor may have smaller, more concentrated pigment. Due to the smaller particle size of the pigment (which can get as low as 0.05 microns), the color will literally seep into the fibers of the paper and will stain (stick to the paper better after it has dried) more effectively, which can be better or worse depending on your art style. However, this pigment concentration and permanence also implies that the paint is suspended in fewer fillers and uses a more effective binder, which also increases the price.

AhmadArt, YouTube (2018)

 

As someone who likes to dabble in watercolors and has used paints of all different quality, learning specific aspects such as these helps with understanding why it may be sometimes worth it to invest in a more expensive watercolor palette. Because sometimes, the price can be translated into its quality. However, it can be easier to see it in person, or maybe under a microscope because after all, a picture is worth a thousand words. 

 

References

acrylgiessen. (2022, February 16). Best Watercolor Paints – All About Professional Watercolor Paints. acrylgiessen.com. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://acrylgiessen.com/en/best-watercolor-paints/

Compound Interest. (2014, March 21). Inorganic Pigment Compounds – The Chemistry of Paint. Compound Interest. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://www.compoundchem.com/2014/03/21/inorganic-pigment-compounds-the-chemistry-of-paint/

Guide, S. (2021, May 19). Best Watercolor Paints – How to Choose the Right Watercolor Paint Set. craft-art.com. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://craft-art.com/best-watercolor-paints/

MacAvoy, B. (n.d.). handprint : how watercolor paints are made. Handprint. Retrieved February, 2022, from https://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/pigmt1.html

McArdle, T. (2008-2022). Watercolor Paint Buyers Guide: Learn What to Look For When You Buy Watercolors — Art is Fun. Art is Fun. Retrieved March 4, 2022, from https://www.art-is-fun.com/watercolor-paint

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Hey there! My name is Savanna and I'm a Computer Science major (people + intelligence concentrations) and a Spanish minor at Georgia Tech. I'm super interested in UI/UX design and graphic design as well. I spend my free time trying to find new music or doodling in my notebooks.

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  Timothy Durham was convicted of rape when a test showed his DNA genotype matched the DNA recovered from the crime scene. Eye witnesses testified that Durham was in a different state at the time of the incident, but he wasn’t exonerated from his 3000 year sentence until follow up DNA analysis showed that the preliminary forensic analysis used in the trial was misinterpreted (Thomas et al.). DNA testing serves an invaluable part in our criminal justice system, but it comes with complications and bias that can lead to wrongful convictions and misinformed juries.  

Background:

Forensic genetics aims to identify the origin of a biological sample. It can be traced back to Karl Landsteiner who discovered human ABO blood groups. With blood groups, suspects could be eliminated based on their blood type. For example, if a suspect had type A blood and there was type B blood left at the scene by the perpetrator, the investigators could rule out the suspect. Unfortunately, the reverse didn’t work. If the suspect and perpetrator both had the same blood type, it can’t be concluded that the suspect was guilty. Blood identifiers evolved into 8 distinct categories which improved the ability to eliminate suspects, but could only conclude that (if the system matched) it might be the perpetrator or this person might be related to the perpetrator (Jobling and Gill). The field evolved in the 1980s with the discovery of Minisatellites, lines of repetitive DNA that don’t encode proteins. Minisatellite patterns in DNA create what we know today as the DNA fingerprint, and it has a much higher accuracy rate than previous methods (Augustyn et al.). Around the same time, a breakthrough for victims of sexual assault was discovered. In the case of assault, bodily fluids of both the victim and the assaulter can get mixed. A process called differential lysis was created which could selectively increase the concentration of sperm in a fluid sample thereby allowing for accurate DNA testing (Jobling and Gill). Forensics evolved to use single-locus probe testing after several years because of its ease of interpretation. It looked at specific minisatellites that had high variability between subjects. This was the first DNA-based method to be used in a criminal investigation. Two murder homicides from several years apart were connected using DNA evidence. The evidence was then used to exonerate an innocent man, and the guilty party was found when he tried to evade mandatory DNA testing for all men in the small town. His guilt was then reinforced when the DNA profiles matched, and he gave a confession (Jobling and Gill). Finding DNA at a crime scene doesn’t guarantee that you’ll find a murderer. There are issues with non-pure samples and limited samples that make DNA work difficult, and accreditation of facilities and new techniques and take time (Jobling and Gill).  

Subjectivity of DNA Interpretation:

In a 2009 publication, the National Academy of Science discusses the possibility for subjective influence in lab based forensics. The interpretation bias happens in complex cases where, for example, there could be a mixture of DNA. A study published in 2011 looked specifically at this issue. A gang rape happened in Georgia, and the mixture in DNA from the case was used to prosecute one suspect after another suspect took a plea bargain to testify against him. With DNA mixtures, there are three possible conclusions: suspect excluded, suspect cannot be excluded, and inconclusive. If the suspect is excluded, it means that there’s little to no possibility that his DNA is part of the sample. If the suspect cannot be excluded, it means that there’s a possibility that his DNA is part of the sample. In the trial, the DNA examiners who knew the context of the case concluded that the suspect being prosecuted could not be excluded. The 2011 study gave the DNA evidence from this case and the DNA profiles of the suspects to 17 forensic examiners. These examiners had no context of the case, and they all worked independently. Of the 17, only 1 came to the same conclusion (suspect cannot be excluded) as the examiners who knew the context of the case. Twelve of the 17 concluded that the suspect who was prosecuted and convicted had no relation to the DNA found in the sample. Not only does this show that subjectivity occurs due to the context of the case, but the 17 examiners came up with different findings based on their past experiences meaning that not all DNA analysis is objective. Some organizations like the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods say that quantitative statistical evidence should be presented with every categorical conclusion, but the US doesn’t require this (Dror and Hampikian).

False Positives:

There are two categories that cause wrongful identification in a DNA report: coincidental matches and false positives. Coincidental matches are DNA matches between two unrelated people. The probability of these matches is about 1 to 500,000 for white individuals and about 1 to 350,000 for black individuals. This small probability of coincidental matches makes people feel confident in DNA evidence. False positives, on the other hand, are matches between DNA and test DNA that result from issues in the forensics lab. There have been multiple cases of forensics labs accidentally switching victim and suspected rapist DNA which lead to convictions that were later overturned when the lab realized the error. There are also cases of misreading or misunderstanding a sample. In a case from 1993, a man was convicted of rape because someone interpreted a mixed sample of victim and perpetrator DNA as an individual sample. The conviction was again overturned. To prevent false convictions, retesting DNA is allowed, but it’s not an efficient solution. Many people are pushing for statistical information on the probability of false positives, so that the jurors can make accurate judgements based on DNA evidence (Thomas et al.).  

Conclusion:

DNA analysis is a useful tool for the criminal justice system, but subjectivity can be an issue in forensic testing. To combat wrongful convictions, there are organizations like The Innocence Project who use DNA testing to free the innocent, but reformed forensic testing standards should be put in place to prevent subjectivity and to ensure juries are correctly informed during trials. https://www.innocenceproject.org/    

Citation:

Augustyn , Adam, et al. “DNA Finerprinting.” Encyclopedia Britannica , 26 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/DNA-fingerprinting#ref153186. Dror, Itiel E., and Greg Hampikian. “Subjectivity and Bias in Forensic DNA Mixture Interpretation.” Science & Justice, vol. 51, no. 4, 2011, pp. 204–208., doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2011.08.004. Jobling, Mark A., and Peter Gill. “Encoded Evidence: DNA in Forensic Analysis.” Nature Reviews: Genetics, vol. 5, no. 10, Oct. 2004, pp. 739–751., doi:10.1038/nrg1455. Thompson, William C, et al. “How the Probability of a False Positive Affects the Value of DNA Evidence.” Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 48, no. 1, Jan. 2003, pp. 1–8., doi:10.1520/jfs2001171.