The 17th and 18th centuries were a time of profound transformation in Europe in regards to thought, reason, skepticism, and empirical observation. This was nowhere more pronounced than during the Age of Enlightenment, its intellectual and philosophical movements leading to modern democracy, with the ideas ushered in during this time forever changing the scope of Western science.
The thinkers of the Enlightenment were inspired to question beyond the limits of scientific reasoning at that time and change human understanding. During the early 17th century, European intellectual reasoning consisted of religious dogma and Aristotelian philosophy, with it being unthinkable to challenge the medieval church’s idea of a divine and static universe that centered around Earth. Therefore, the ensuing Scientific Revolution during this time revolutionized the way that Europeans thought about the world and set a new standard for deductive reasoning and scientific observation.
Science at this time was conducted predominantly by scientific societies and academies rather than universities, and while some societies had links to universities, most societies operated on their own. These societies grew to have control over their publications, the election of new members, and the administration of the organization, with there being over 70 different scientific societies by 1789. Additionally, science during this time became more popular among the increasingly literate populace and the public was introduced to various scientific ideas.
One thinker who was thought to establish the foundations for the movement was Francis Bacon, who is known for establishing empiricism and the scientific method. His book, Novum Organum, discussed a new approach to gathering knowledge from systematic experimentation, inductive reasoning, and empirical observation. He also wrote about the idea of testing hypotheses through experimentation as a way to pursue scientific inquiry. He was the first advocate for the idea of separating religion from science, and his impact on the science world remains today as the scientific method is still seen as the standard way to approach discoveries.
The most pivotal scientific thinker of that age whose legacy remains today is Sir Isaac Newton. His Principia Mathematica described classical mechanics and presented the laws of motion and universal gravitation through mathematical observation and analysis. His law of universal gravitation and the laws of objects in motion changed the way that people practiced science and indicated the need for empirical observation and evidence behind scientific ideas rather than religion. Through this, Newton was able to demonstrate how the same physical laws govern both terrestrial and celestial environments, challenging the ideas of the universe at that time. These insights would also eventually lead to advancements in the fields of physics, astronomy, and engineering.
Another scientist during this time was Carl Linnaeus, a botanist and physician. His book, Systema Naturae, established the binomial nomenclature for species classification where each species is assigned a two part Latin name for its genus and species. Linnaeus ordered animals and plants into defined groups, such as domains and phyla, and used the scientific ideas of observation and rational analysis to study various evolutionary relationships and biodiversity. His work shaped people’s understanding of nature and created a framework for how botany, zoology, and ecology is studied.
Overall, the Age of Enlightenment was an integral part of scientific and intellectual history and changed the way that Europe viewed reason, individualism, and progress. While the Enlightenment might not have explored all modern thought, the scholars, scientists, and thinkers of this time sought to break free from the limited knowledge of their world and seek new truth and ideas. Today, we can reflect on the science from the Enlightenment to continue to make bold scientific discoveries and create our impact on the world.
Sources:
Bristow, W. (2010, August 20). Enlightenment (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu; Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/
Duignan, B. (2024, March 28). Enlightenment. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history
Zucker, S., & Harris, B. (2016, January 7). The Age of Enlightenment, an introduction. Smarthistory. https://smarthistory.org/a-beginners-guide-to-the-age-of-enlightenment/
